Research Skills
For databases, go to eresources under FIND
Good research ability is a skill that you can learn. It will help you in your studies here at RBSC and into later life, at a university or in your work or navigating life in the modern world. Good research ability allows you to find the best information and use it wisely.
Plagiarism
Diagnosis Murder - A plagiarism video
Essay writing skills
Study skills
Bibliographies
Referencing
Research Skills
Evaluating Sources
Creative Commons
PLAGIARISM
Definition of Plagiarism is:
LINK
https://sydney.edu.au/students/academic-dishonesty.html
Definition of Plagiarism is:
- The submission of material authored by another person but represented as the student's own work, whether that material is paraphrased or copied in verbatim or near-verbatim form.
- The submission of material subjected to editorial revision by another person that results in substantive changes in content or major alteration of writ.
- Avoiding Allegations of Plagiarism
An allegation of plagiarism is intent-neutral. In other words, because the reader cannot discern whether the absence of a citation was done deliberately or you simply forgot, it is important to review your paper before you submit it to ensure you have listed all sources used during your research. This is why it is important to keep track of everything you have used during the course of writing your paper so you can easily assess whether all your sources have been cited properly.
With this in mind, credit must be given when using one of the following in your own research paper: - Another person's idea, opinion, or theory;
- Any facts, statistics, graphs, drawings, or other non-textual elements used or that you adapted from another source;
- Any pieces of information that are not common knowledge;
- Quotations of another person's actual spoken or written words; or
- Paraphrase of another person's spoken or written words.
- To introduce students to the process of citing other people's work, the USC Social Work Librarians have created a useful online tutorial on avoiding plagiarism. It describes what constitutes plagiarism and offers helpful advice on how to properly cite sources. In addition, the Office of Student Judicial Affairs and Community Standards has also published, "Trojan Integrity: A Guide for Avoiding Plagiarism." This guide provides a comprehensive explanation for how to defend yourself against allegations of violating the university's policy on academic integrity.
If you have any doubts about whether to cite a particular source concerning an argument or statement made in your paper, protect yourself by citing a source or sources that helps the reader determine the validity of your work. Note that not citing a source not only raises concerns about the integrity of your paper, but it also tells the reader that you have not conducted an effective or thorough review of the literature in support of the research problem under investigation. - Improper acknowledgement of sources in essays or papers.
LINK
https://sydney.edu.au/students/academic-dishonesty.html
REFERENCING
References in the body of your essay
The APA (American Psychological Association) in text reference is in the format (author, date). When directly quoting from a text you must include a page number in the citation as given in the examples below. Including page numbers in all other circumstances is not required however, it is best practice to do so when referring to part of a work (e.g. a paragraph or chapter in a book). When referring to an entire work that covers a single topic (e.g. a journal article) it is not required.
Referencing an idea
Referencing a quotation
Citing a source within a source
Where your source quotes or refers to another source, for example Unsworth refers to previous work by Halliday on linguistics, the citation might read thus:
Reference List
Your reference list should be ordered alphabetically by author and then chronologically by year of publication. The APA 6th style requires the references to be indented as illustrated below in the examples.
For instances of multiple articles with the same authors and years of publication, please see the complete guide. If you have the DOI for the journal article, you should include it in the reference, otherwise, it is not necessary.
Book
Book chapter
Journal article
Webpage with an author
Webpage with no author
Newspaper article
Government publication
Company and Industry Reports
APA 6th Tool
Academic Writer is APA's tool fully integrated with Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.).
Additional Resources
APA Style blog
The APA Style Blog is the official companion to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Sixth Edition. It explores what APA Style is and how it works in a variety of areas, including reference citations of every sort, grammar and usage, the publication process, and References in the body of your essayThe APA in text reference is in the format (author, date). When directly quoting from a text you must include a page number in the citation as given in the examples below. Including page numbers in all other circumstances is not required however, it is best practice to do so when referring to part of a work (e.g. a paragraph or chapter in a book). When referring to an entire work that covers a single topic (e.g. a journal article) it is not required.
Referencing an idea
Referencing a quotation
Citing a source within a source
Where your source quotes or refers to another source, for example Unsworth refers to previous work by Halliday on linguistics, the citation might read thus:
Reference List
Your reference list should be ordered alphabetically by author and then chronologically by year of publication. The APA 6th style requires the references to be indented as illustrated below in the examples.
For instances of multiple articles with the same authors and years of publication, please see the complete guide. If you have the DOI for the journal article, you should include it in the reference, otherwise, it is not necessary.
Book
Book chapter
Journal article
Webpage with an author
Webpage with no author
Newspaper article
Government publication
Company and Industry Reports
Academic Writing - Definition
Academic writing refers to a style of expression that researchers use to define the intellectual boundaries of their disciplines and their specific areas of expertise. Characteristics of academic writing include a formal tone, use of the third-person rather than first-person perspective (usually), a clear focus on the research problem under investigation, and precise word choice. Like specialist languages adopted in other professions, such as, law or medicine, academic writing is designed to convey agreed meaning about complex ideas or concepts for a group of scholarly experts.
Importance of Good Academic Writing
The accepted form of academic writing in the social sciences can vary considerable depending on the methodological framework and the intended audience. However, most college-level research papers require careful attention to the following stylistic elements:
I. The Big Picture
Unlike fiction or journalistic writing, the overall structure of academic writing is formal and logical. It must be cohesive and possess a logically organized flow of ideas; this means that the various parts are connected to form a unified whole. There should be narrative links between sentences and paragraphs so that the reader is able to follow your argument. The introduction should include a description of how the rest of the paper is organized and all sources are properly cited throughout the paper.
II. The Tone
The overall tone refers to the attitude conveyed in a piece of writing. Throughout your paper, it is important that you present the arguments of others fairly and with an appropriate narrative tone. When presenting a position or argument that you disagree with, describe this argument accurately and without loaded or biased language. In academic writing, the author is expected to investigate the research problem from an authoritative point of view. You should, therefore, state the strengths of your arguments confidently, using language that is neutral, not confrontational or dismissive.
III. Diction
Diction refers to the choice of words you use. Awareness of the words you use is important because words that have almost the same denotation [dictionary definition] can have very different connotations [implied meanings]. This is particularly true in academic writing because words and terminology can evolve a nuanced meaning that describes a particular idea, concept, or phenomenon derived from the epistemological culture of that discipline [e.g., the concept of rational choice in political science]. Therefore, use concrete words [not general] that convey a specific meaning. If this cannot be done without confusing the reader, then you need to explain what you mean within the context of how that word or phrase is used within a discipline.
IV. The Language
The investigation of research problems in the social sciences is often complex and multi-dimensional. Therefore, it is important that you use unambiguous language. Well-structured paragraphs and clear topic sentences enable a reader to follow your line of thinking without difficulty. Your language should be concise, formal, and express precisely what you want it to mean. Do not use vague expressions that are not specific or precise enough for the reader to derive exact meaning ["they," "we," "people," "the organization," etc.], abbreviations like 'i.e.' ["in other words"], 'e.g.' ["for example"], or 'a.k.a.' ["also known as"], and the use of unspecific determinate words ["super," "very," "incredible," "huge," etc.].
V. Punctuation
Scholars rely on precise words and language to establish the narrative tone of their work and, therefore, punctuation marks are used very deliberately. For example, exclamation points are rarely used to express a heightened tone because it can come across as unsophisticated or over-excited. Dashes should be limited to the insertion of an explanatory comment in a sentence, while hyphens should be limited to connecting prefixes to words [e.g., multi-disciplinary] or when forming compound phrases [e.g., commander-in-chief]. Finally, understand that semi-colons represent a pause that is longer than a comma, but shorter than a period in a sentence. In general, there are four grammatical uses of semi-colons: when a second clause expands or explains the first clause; to describe a sequence of actions or different aspects of the same topic; placed before clauses which begin with "nevertheless", "therefore", "even so," and "for instance”; and, to mark off a series of phrases or clauses which contain commas. If you are not confident about when to use semi-colons [and most of the time, they are not required for proper punctuation], rewrite using shorter sentences or revise the paragraph.
VI. Academic Conventions
Citing sources in the body of your paper and providing a list of references as either footnotes or endnotes is a very important aspect of academic writing. It is essential to always acknowledge the source of any ideas, research findings, data, or quoted text that you have used in your paper as a defense against allegations of plagiarism. Equally important, the scholarly convention of citing sources allow readers to identify the resources you used in writing your paper so they can independently verify and assess the quality of findings and conclusions based on your review of the literature. Examples of other academic conventions to follow include the appropriate use of headings and subheadings, properly spelling out acronyms when first used in the text, avoiding slang or colloquial language, avoiding emotive language or unsupported declarative statements, avoiding contractions, and using first person and second person pronouns only when necessary.
VII. Evidence-Based Reasoning
Assignments often ask you to express your own point of view about the research problem. However, what is valued in academic writing is that opinions are based on what is often termed, evidence-based reasoning, a sound understanding of the pertinent body of knowledge and academic debates that exist within, and often external to, your discipline. You need to support your opinion with evidence from scholarly sources. It should be an objective stance presented as a logical argument. The quality of your evidence will determine the strength of your argument. The challenge is to convince the reader of the validity of your opinion through a well-documented, coherent, and logically structured piece of writing. This is particularly important when proposing solutions to problems or delineating recommended courses of action.
VIII. Thesis-Driven
Academic writing is “thesis-driven,” meaning that the starting point is a particular perspective, idea, or position applied to the chosen topic of investigation, such as, establishing, proving, or disproving solutions to the research questions posed for the topic. Note that a problem statement without the research questions does not qualify as academic writing because simply identifying the research problem does not establish for the reader how you will contribute to solving the problem, what aspects you believe are most critical, or suggest a method for gathering data to better understand the problem.
IX. Complexity and Higher-Order Thinking
Academic writing addresses complex issues that require higher-order thinking skills applied to understanding the research problem [e.g., critical, reflective, logical, and creative thinking as opposed to, for example, descriptive or prescriptive thinking]. Higher-order thinking skills include cognitive processes that are used to comprehend, solve problems, and express concepts or that describe abstract ideas that cannot be easily acted out, pointed to, or shown with images. Think of your writing this way: One of the most important attributes of a good teacher is the ability to explain complexity in a way that is understandable and relatable to the topic being presented. This is also one of the main functions of academic writing--examining and explaining the significance of complex ideas as clearly as possible. As a writer, you must adopt the role of a good teacher by summarizing a lot of complex information into a well-organized synthesis of ideas, concepts, and recommendations that contribute to a better understanding of the research problem.
Academic Writing. Writing Center. Colorado Technical College; Hartley, James. Academic Writing and Publishing: A Practical Guide. New York: Routledge, 2008; Murray, Rowena and Sarah Moore. The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach. New York: Open University Press, 2006; Johnson, Roy. Improve Your Writing Skills. Manchester, UK: Clifton Press, 1995; Nygaard, Lynn P. Writing for Scholars: A Practical Guide to Making Sense and Being Heard. Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2015; Silvia, Paul J. How to Write a Lot: A Practical Guide to Productive Academic Writing. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2007; Style, Diction, Tone, and Voice. Writing Center, Wheaton College; Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012.
Strategies for...Understanding Academic Writing and Its Jargon
The very definition of jargon is language specific to a particular sub-group of people. Therefore, in modern university life, jargon represents the specific language and meaning assigned to words and phrases specific to a discipline or area of study. For example, the idea of being rational may hold the same general meaning in both political science and psychology, but its application to understanding and explaining phenomena within the research domain of a each discipline may have subtle differences based upon how scholars in that discipline apply the concept to the theories and practice of their work.
Given this, it is important that specialist terminology [i.e., jargon] must be used accurately and applied under the appropriate conditions. Subject-specific dictionaries are the best places to confirm the meaning of terms within the context of a specific discipline. These can be found by either searching in the USC Libraries catalog by entering the disciplinary and the word dictionary [e.g., sociology and dictionary] or using a database such as Credo Reference. It is appropriate for you to use specialist language within your field of study, but you should avoid using such language when writing for non-academic or general audiences.
Problems with Opaque Writing
It's not unheard of for scholars to utilize needlessly complex syntax or overly expansive vocabulary that is impenetrable or not well-defined. When writing, avoid problems associated with opaque writing by keeping in mind the following:
1. Excessive use of specialized terminology. Yes, it is appropriate for you to use specialist language and a formal style of expression in academic writing, but it does not mean using "big words" just for the sake of doing so. Overuse of complex or obscure words or writing complicated sentence constructions gives readers the impression that your paper is more about style than substance; it leads the reader to question if you really know what you are talking about. Focus on creating clear and elegant prose that minimizes reliance on specialized terminology.
2. Inappropriate use of specialized terminology. Because you are dealing with concepts, research, and data within your discipline, you need to use the technical language appropriate to that area of study. However, nothing will undermine the validity of your study quicker than the inappropriate application of a term or concept. Avoid using terms whose meaning you are unsure of--don't just guess or assume! Consult the meaning of terms in specialized, discipline-specific dictionaries by searching the USC Libraries catalog or reference database [see above].
Additional Problems to Avoid
In addition to understanding the use of specialized language, there are other aspects of academic writing in the social sciences that you should be aware of. These problems include:
NOTE: Rules concerning excellent grammar and precise word structure do not apply when quoting someone. A quote should be inserted in the text of your paper exactly as it was stated. If the quote is especially vague or hard to understand, consider paraphrasing it or using a different quote to convey the same meaning. Consider inserting the term "sic" in brackets after the quoted word or phrase to indicate that the quotation has been transcribed exactly as found in the original source, but the source has grammar, spelling, or other errors. The adverb sic informs the reader that the errors are not yours.
Academic Writing. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Academic Writing Style. First-Year Seminar Handbook. Mercer University; Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Cornell University; College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Murray, Rowena and Sarah Moore. The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach. New York: Open University Press, 2006; Oppenheimer, Daniel M. "Consequences of Erudite Vernacular Utilized Irrespective of Necessity: Problems with Using Long Words Needlessly." Applied Cognitive Psychology 20 (2006): 139-156; Pernawan, Ari. Common Flaws in Students' Rsearch Proposals. English Education Department. Yogyakarta State University; Style. College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Invention: Five Qualities of Good Writing. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012; What Is an Academic Paper? Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.
Structure and Writing Style
I. Improving Academic Writing
To improve your academic writing skills, you should focus your efforts on three key areas:
1. Clear Writing. The act of thinking about precedes the process of writing about. Good writers spend sufficient time distilling information and reviewing major points from the literature they have reviewed before creating their work. Writing detailed outlines can help you clearly organize your thoughts. Effective academic writing begins with solid planning, so manage your time carefully.
2. Excellent Grammar. Needless to say, English grammar can be difficult and complex; even the best scholars take many years before they have a command of the major points of good grammar. Take the time to learn the major and minor points of good grammar. Spend time practicing writing and seek detailed feedback from professors. Take advantage of the Writing Center on campus if you need help. Proper punctuation and good proofreading skills can significantly improve academic writing [see sub-tab for proofreading you paper].
Refer to these three basic resources to help your grammar and writing skills:
II. Evaluating Quality of Writing
A useful approach for evaluating the quality of your academic writing is to consider the following issues from the perspective of the reader. While proofreading your final draft, critically assess the following elements in your writing.
References in the body of your essay
The APA (American Psychological Association) in text reference is in the format (author, date). When directly quoting from a text you must include a page number in the citation as given in the examples below. Including page numbers in all other circumstances is not required however, it is best practice to do so when referring to part of a work (e.g. a paragraph or chapter in a book). When referring to an entire work that covers a single topic (e.g. a journal article) it is not required.
Referencing an idea
- The leading medical cause of Aboriginal mortality is due to circulatory system disease. Other important causes of death include diseases of the respiratory system and injury or poisoning (Anderson, 1999; Saggers & Gray, 1999; Thomson, 1995).
- Anderson (1999), Thomson (1995), and Saggers and Gray (1999) all state that the leading cause of Aboriginal mortality is due to circulatory system disease, and that other important causes of death include diseases of the respiratory system and injury or poisoning.
Referencing a quotation
- Indeed, one researcher commented that “technological innovations have saved or extended the lives of many patients” (Lumby, 2001, p. 44).
Citing a source within a source
Where your source quotes or refers to another source, for example Unsworth refers to previous work by Halliday on linguistics, the citation might read thus:
- (Halliday, as cited in Unsworth, 2004, p. 15)
Reference List
Your reference list should be ordered alphabetically by author and then chronologically by year of publication. The APA 6th style requires the references to be indented as illustrated below in the examples.
For instances of multiple articles with the same authors and years of publication, please see the complete guide. If you have the DOI for the journal article, you should include it in the reference, otherwise, it is not necessary.
Book
- De Vaus, D. A. (2014). Surveys in social research. Sydney, Australia: Allen & Unwin.
Book chapter
- McKenzie, H., Boughton, M., Hayes, L., & Forsyth, S. (2008). Explaining the complexities and value of nursing practice and knowledge. In I. Morley & M. Crouch (Eds.), Knowledge as value: Illumination through critical prisms (pp. 209-224). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Rodopi.
Journal article
- Boughton, M., & Halliday, L. (2008). A challenge to the menopause stereotype: Young Australian women's reflections of 'being diagnosed' as menopausal. Health & Social Care in the Community, 16(6), 565-572. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2524.2008.00777.x
Webpage with an author
- Welch, N. (2000, February 21). Toward an understanding of the determinants of rural health. Retrieved from https://www.ruralhealth.org.au/welch.htm
Webpage with no author
- ANCI national competency standards for the registered nurse and the enrolled nurse. (2000). Retrieved from https://www.anci.org.au/competencystandards.htm
Newspaper article
- Bagnall, D. (1998, January 27). Private schools: Why they are out in front. The Bulletin, pp. 12-15.
Government publication
- The Health Targets and Implementation (Health for All) Committee. (1988). Health for all Australians. Canberra, Australia: Australian Government Publishing Service.
Company and Industry Reports
- Magner, L. (2016). IBISWorld Industry Report OD5381. Coffee Shops in Australia. Retrieved from IBISWorld database;
APA 6th Tool
Academic Writer is APA's tool fully integrated with Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.).
Additional Resources
APA Style blog
The APA Style Blog is the official companion to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Sixth Edition. It explores what APA Style is and how it works in a variety of areas, including reference citations of every sort, grammar and usage, the publication process, and References in the body of your essayThe APA in text reference is in the format (author, date). When directly quoting from a text you must include a page number in the citation as given in the examples below. Including page numbers in all other circumstances is not required however, it is best practice to do so when referring to part of a work (e.g. a paragraph or chapter in a book). When referring to an entire work that covers a single topic (e.g. a journal article) it is not required.
Referencing an idea
- The leading medical cause of Aboriginal mortality is due to circulatory system disease. Other important causes of death include diseases of the respiratory system and injury or poisoning (Anderson, 1999; Saggers & Gray, 1999; Thomson, 1995).
- Anderson (1999), Thomson (1995), and Saggers and Gray (1999) all state that the leading cause of Aboriginal mortality is due to circulatory system disease, and that other important causes of death include diseases of the respiratory system and injury or poisoning.
Referencing a quotation
- Indeed, one researcher commented that “technological innovations have saved or extended the lives of many patients” (Lumby, 2001, p. 44).
Citing a source within a source
Where your source quotes or refers to another source, for example Unsworth refers to previous work by Halliday on linguistics, the citation might read thus:
- (Halliday, as cited in Unsworth, 2004, p. 15)
Reference List
Your reference list should be ordered alphabetically by author and then chronologically by year of publication. The APA 6th style requires the references to be indented as illustrated below in the examples.
For instances of multiple articles with the same authors and years of publication, please see the complete guide. If you have the DOI for the journal article, you should include it in the reference, otherwise, it is not necessary.
Book
- De Vaus, D. A. (2014). Surveys in social research. Sydney, Australia: Allen & Unwin.
Book chapter
- McKenzie, H., Boughton, M., Hayes, L., & Forsyth, S. (2008). Explaining the complexities and value of nursing practice and knowledge. In I. Morley & M. Crouch (Eds.), Knowledge as value: Illumination through critical prisms (pp. 209-224). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Rodopi.
Journal article
- Boughton, M., & Halliday, L. (2008). A challenge to the menopause stereotype: Young Australian women's reflections of 'being diagnosed' as menopausal. Health & Social Care in the Community, 16(6), 565-572. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2524.2008.00777.x
Webpage with an author
- Welch, N. (2000, February 21). Toward an understanding of the determinants of rural health. Retrieved from https://www.ruralhealth.org.au/welch.htm
Webpage with no author
- ANCI national competency standards for the registered nurse and the enrolled nurse. (2000). Retrieved from https://www.anci.org.au/competencystandards.htm
Newspaper article
- Bagnall, D. (1998, January 27). Private schools: Why they are out in front. The Bulletin, pp. 12-15.
Government publication
- The Health Targets and Implementation (Health for All) Committee. (1988). Health for all Australians. Canberra, Australia: Australian Government Publishing Service.
Company and Industry Reports
- Magner, L. (2016). IBISWorld Industry Report OD5381. Coffee Shops in Australia. Retrieved from IBISWorld database.
Academic Writing - Definition
Academic writing refers to a style of expression that researchers use to define the intellectual boundaries of their disciplines and their specific areas of expertise. Characteristics of academic writing include a formal tone, use of the third-person rather than first-person perspective (usually), a clear focus on the research problem under investigation, and precise word choice. Like specialist languages adopted in other professions, such as, law or medicine, academic writing is designed to convey agreed meaning about complex ideas or concepts for a group of scholarly experts.
Importance of Good Academic Writing
The accepted form of academic writing in the social sciences can vary considerable depending on the methodological framework and the intended audience. However, most college-level research papers require careful attention to the following stylistic elements:
I. The Big Picture
Unlike fiction or journalistic writing, the overall structure of academic writing is formal and logical. It must be cohesive and possess a logically organized flow of ideas; this means that the various parts are connected to form a unified whole. There should be narrative links between sentences and paragraphs so that the reader is able to follow your argument. The introduction should include a description of how the rest of the paper is organized and all sources are properly cited throughout the paper.
II. The Tone
The overall tone refers to the attitude conveyed in a piece of writing. Throughout your paper, it is important that you present the arguments of others fairly and with an appropriate narrative tone. When presenting a position or argument that you disagree with, describe this argument accurately and without loaded or biased language. In academic writing, the author is expected to investigate the research problem from an authoritative point of view. You should, therefore, state the strengths of your arguments confidently, using language that is neutral, not confrontational or dismissive.
III. Diction
Diction refers to the choice of words you use. Awareness of the words you use is important because words that have almost the same denotation [dictionary definition] can have very different connotations [implied meanings]. This is particularly true in academic writing because words and terminology can evolve a nuanced meaning that describes a particular idea, concept, or phenomenon derived from the epistemological culture of that discipline [e.g., the concept of rational choice in political science]. Therefore, use concrete words [not general] that convey a specific meaning. If this cannot be done without confusing the reader, then you need to explain what you mean within the context of how that word or phrase is used within a discipline.
IV. The Language
The investigation of research problems in the social sciences is often complex and multi-dimensional. Therefore, it is important that you use unambiguous language. Well-structured paragraphs and clear topic sentences enable a reader to follow your line of thinking without difficulty. Your language should be concise, formal, and express precisely what you want it to mean. Do not use vague expressions that are not specific or precise enough for the reader to derive exact meaning ["they," "we," "people," "the organization," etc.], abbreviations like 'i.e.' ["in other words"], 'e.g.' ["for example"], or 'a.k.a.' ["also known as"], and the use of unspecific determinate words ["super," "very," "incredible," "huge," etc.].
V. Punctuation
Scholars rely on precise words and language to establish the narrative tone of their work and, therefore, punctuation marks are used very deliberately. For example, exclamation points are rarely used to express a heightened tone because it can come across as unsophisticated or over-excited. Dashes should be limited to the insertion of an explanatory comment in a sentence, while hyphens should be limited to connecting prefixes to words [e.g., multi-disciplinary] or when forming compound phrases [e.g., commander-in-chief]. Finally, understand that semi-colons represent a pause that is longer than a comma, but shorter than a period in a sentence. In general, there are four grammatical uses of semi-colons: when a second clause expands or explains the first clause; to describe a sequence of actions or different aspects of the same topic; placed before clauses which begin with "nevertheless", "therefore", "even so," and "for instance”; and, to mark off a series of phrases or clauses which contain commas. If you are not confident about when to use semi-colons [and most of the time, they are not required for proper punctuation], rewrite using shorter sentences or revise the paragraph.
VI. Academic Conventions
Citing sources in the body of your paper and providing a list of references as either footnotes or endnotes is a very important aspect of academic writing. It is essential to always acknowledge the source of any ideas, research findings, data, or quoted text that you have used in your paper as a defense against allegations of plagiarism. Equally important, the scholarly convention of citing sources allow readers to identify the resources you used in writing your paper so they can independently verify and assess the quality of findings and conclusions based on your review of the literature. Examples of other academic conventions to follow include the appropriate use of headings and subheadings, properly spelling out acronyms when first used in the text, avoiding slang or colloquial language, avoiding emotive language or unsupported declarative statements, avoiding contractions, and using first person and second person pronouns only when necessary.
VII. Evidence-Based Reasoning
Assignments often ask you to express your own point of view about the research problem. However, what is valued in academic writing is that opinions are based on what is often termed, evidence-based reasoning, a sound understanding of the pertinent body of knowledge and academic debates that exist within, and often external to, your discipline. You need to support your opinion with evidence from scholarly sources. It should be an objective stance presented as a logical argument. The quality of your evidence will determine the strength of your argument. The challenge is to convince the reader of the validity of your opinion through a well-documented, coherent, and logically structured piece of writing. This is particularly important when proposing solutions to problems or delineating recommended courses of action.
VIII. Thesis-Driven
Academic writing is “thesis-driven,” meaning that the starting point is a particular perspective, idea, or position applied to the chosen topic of investigation, such as, establishing, proving, or disproving solutions to the research questions posed for the topic. Note that a problem statement without the research questions does not qualify as academic writing because simply identifying the research problem does not establish for the reader how you will contribute to solving the problem, what aspects you believe are most critical, or suggest a method for gathering data to better understand the problem.
IX. Complexity and Higher-Order Thinking
Academic writing addresses complex issues that require higher-order thinking skills applied to understanding the research problem [e.g., critical, reflective, logical, and creative thinking as opposed to, for example, descriptive or prescriptive thinking]. Higher-order thinking skills include cognitive processes that are used to comprehend, solve problems, and express concepts or that describe abstract ideas that cannot be easily acted out, pointed to, or shown with images. Think of your writing this way: One of the most important attributes of a good teacher is the ability to explain complexity in a way that is understandable and relatable to the topic being presented. This is also one of the main functions of academic writing--examining and explaining the significance of complex ideas as clearly as possible. As a writer, you must adopt the role of a good teacher by summarizing a lot of complex information into a well-organized synthesis of ideas, concepts, and recommendations that contribute to a better understanding of the research problem.
Academic Writing. Writing Center. Colorado Technical College; Hartley, James. Academic Writing and Publishing: A Practical Guide. New York: Routledge, 2008; Murray, Rowena and Sarah Moore. The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach. New York: Open University Press, 2006; Johnson, Roy. Improve Your Writing Skills. Manchester, UK: Clifton Press, 1995; Nygaard, Lynn P. Writing for Scholars: A Practical Guide to Making Sense and Being Heard. Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2015; Silvia, Paul J. How to Write a Lot: A Practical Guide to Productive Academic Writing. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2007; Style, Diction, Tone, and Voice. Writing Center, Wheaton College; Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012.
Strategies for...Understanding Academic Writing and Its Jargon
The very definition of jargon is language specific to a particular sub-group of people. Therefore, in modern university life, jargon represents the specific language and meaning assigned to words and phrases specific to a discipline or area of study. For example, the idea of being rational may hold the same general meaning in both political science and psychology, but its application to understanding and explaining phenomena within the research domain of a each discipline may have subtle differences based upon how scholars in that discipline apply the concept to the theories and practice of their work.
Given this, it is important that specialist terminology [i.e., jargon] must be used accurately and applied under the appropriate conditions. Subject-specific dictionaries are the best places to confirm the meaning of terms within the context of a specific discipline. These can be found by either searching in the USC Libraries catalog by entering the disciplinary and the word dictionary [e.g., sociology and dictionary] or using a database such as Credo Reference. It is appropriate for you to use specialist language within your field of study, but you should avoid using such language when writing for non-academic or general audiences.
Problems with Opaque Writing
It's not unheard of for scholars to utilize needlessly complex syntax or overly expansive vocabulary that is impenetrable or not well-defined. When writing, avoid problems associated with opaque writing by keeping in mind the following:
1. Excessive use of specialized terminology. Yes, it is appropriate for you to use specialist language and a formal style of expression in academic writing, but it does not mean using "big words" just for the sake of doing so. Overuse of complex or obscure words or writing complicated sentence constructions gives readers the impression that your paper is more about style than substance; it leads the reader to question if you really know what you are talking about. Focus on creating clear and elegant prose that minimizes reliance on specialized terminology.
2. Inappropriate use of specialized terminology. Because you are dealing with concepts, research, and data within your discipline, you need to use the technical language appropriate to that area of study. However, nothing will undermine the validity of your study quicker than the inappropriate application of a term or concept. Avoid using terms whose meaning you are unsure of--don't just guess or assume! Consult the meaning of terms in specialized, discipline-specific dictionaries by searching the USC Libraries catalog or reference database [see above].
Additional Problems to Avoid
In addition to understanding the use of specialized language, there are other aspects of academic writing in the social sciences that you should be aware of. These problems include:
- Personal nouns. Excessive use of personal nouns [e.g., I, me, you, us] may lead the reader to believe the study was overly subjective. These words can be interpreted as being used only to avoid presenting empirical evidence about the research problem. Limit the use of personal nouns to descriptions of things you actually did [e.g., "I interviewed ten teachers about classroom management techniques..."]. Note that personal nouns are generally found in the discussion section of a paper because this is where you as the author/researcher interpret and describe your work.
- Directives. Avoid directives that demand the reader to "do this" or "do that." Directives should be framed as evidence-based recommendations or goals leading to specific outcomes.
- Informal, conversational tone using slang and idioms. Academic writing relies on excellent grammar and precise word structure. Your narrative should not include regional dialects or slang terms because they can be open to interpretation; be direct and concise using standard English.
- Wordiness. Focus on being concise, straightforward, and developing a narrative that does not have confusing language. By doing so, you help eliminate the possibility of the reader misinterpreting the design and purpose of your study.
- Vague expressions (e.g., "they," "we," "people," "the company," "that area," etc.). Being concise in your writing also includes avoiding vague references to persons, places, or things. While proofreading your paper, be sure to look for and edit any vague or imprecise statements that lack context or specificity.
- Numbered lists and bulleted items. The use of bulleted items or lists should be used only if the narrative dictates a need for clarity. For example, it is fine to state, "The four main problems with hedge funds are:" and then list them as 1, 2, 3, 4. However, in academic writing, this must then be followed by detailed explanation and analysis of each item. Given this, the question you should ask yourself while proofreading is: why begin with a list in the first place rather than just starting with systematic analysis of each item arranged in separate paragraphs? Also, be careful using numbers because they can imply a ranked order of priority or importance. If none exists, use bullets and avoid checkmarks or other symbols.
- Descriptive writing. Describing a research problem is an important means of contextualizing a study. In fact, some description or background information may be needed because you can not assume the reader knows everything about the topic. However, the content of your paper should focus on methodology, the analysis and interpretation of findings, and their implications as they apply to the research problem rather than background information and descriptions of tangential issues.
- Personal experience. Drawing upon personal experience [e.g., traveling abroad; caring for someone with Alzheimer's disease] can be an effective way of introducing the research problem or engaging your readers in understanding its significance. Use personal experience only as an example, though, because academic writing relies on evidence-based research. To do otherwise is simply story-telling.
NOTE: Rules concerning excellent grammar and precise word structure do not apply when quoting someone. A quote should be inserted in the text of your paper exactly as it was stated. If the quote is especially vague or hard to understand, consider paraphrasing it or using a different quote to convey the same meaning. Consider inserting the term "sic" in brackets after the quoted word or phrase to indicate that the quotation has been transcribed exactly as found in the original source, but the source has grammar, spelling, or other errors. The adverb sic informs the reader that the errors are not yours.
Academic Writing. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Academic Writing Style. First-Year Seminar Handbook. Mercer University; Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Cornell University; College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Murray, Rowena and Sarah Moore. The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach. New York: Open University Press, 2006; Oppenheimer, Daniel M. "Consequences of Erudite Vernacular Utilized Irrespective of Necessity: Problems with Using Long Words Needlessly." Applied Cognitive Psychology 20 (2006): 139-156; Pernawan, Ari. Common Flaws in Students' Rsearch Proposals. English Education Department. Yogyakarta State University; Style. College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Invention: Five Qualities of Good Writing. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012; What Is an Academic Paper? Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.
Structure and Writing Style
I. Improving Academic Writing
To improve your academic writing skills, you should focus your efforts on three key areas:
1. Clear Writing. The act of thinking about precedes the process of writing about. Good writers spend sufficient time distilling information and reviewing major points from the literature they have reviewed before creating their work. Writing detailed outlines can help you clearly organize your thoughts. Effective academic writing begins with solid planning, so manage your time carefully.
2. Excellent Grammar. Needless to say, English grammar can be difficult and complex; even the best scholars take many years before they have a command of the major points of good grammar. Take the time to learn the major and minor points of good grammar. Spend time practicing writing and seek detailed feedback from professors. Take advantage of the Writing Center on campus if you need help. Proper punctuation and good proofreading skills can significantly improve academic writing [see sub-tab for proofreading you paper].
Refer to these three basic resources to help your grammar and writing skills:
- A good writing reference book, such as, Strunk and White’s book, The Elements of Style or the St. Martin's Handbook;
- A college-level dictionary, such as, Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary;
- The latest edition of Roget's Thesaurus in Dictionary Form.
II. Evaluating Quality of Writing
A useful approach for evaluating the quality of your academic writing is to consider the following issues from the perspective of the reader. While proofreading your final draft, critically assess the following elements in your writing.
- It is shaped around one clear research problem, and it explains what that problem is from the outset.
- Your paper tells the reader why the problem is important and why people should know about it.
- You have accurately and thoroughly informed the reader what has already been published about this problem or others related to it and noted important gaps in the research.
- You have provided evidence to support your argument that the reader finds convincing.
- The paper includes a description of how and why particular evidence was collected and analyzed, and why specific theoretical arguments or concepts were used.
- The paper is made up of paragraphs, each containing only one controlling idea.
- You indicate how each section of the paper addresses the research problem.
- You have considered counter-arguments or counter-examples where they are relevant.
- Arguments, evidence, and their significance have been presented in the conclusion.
- Limitations of your research have been explained as evidence of the potential need for further study.
- The narrative flows in a clear, accurate, and well-organized way.
REFERENCING
Harvard Referencing: Guide
Harvard is a style of referencing, primarily used by university students, to cite information, please click on the link below .
sourceshttps://www.citethisforme.com/harvard-referencing
Harvard Referencing Guide General Principles
The following principles of the Harvard style of referencing apply to all sources, including print, electronic and multimedia sources.
Note that you may not always find an example of the specific source you want to reference. Sometimes you may have to combine elements from more than one section in this guide to determine the correct referencing format.
The Harvard style consists of two elements:
How do I format in-text citations?
Harvard in-text citations consist of the family name of the author and the year of publication. In addition, page numbers should be included when paraphrasing (rephrasing a short passage) or quoting directly from a source. A comma is placed between the year and the page number. An in-text citation can go at the beginning, the middle or the end of a sentence.
For citations you can emphasise the author:
Salzmann, Stanlaw and Adachi (2012, p. 4) further explore the established misconception that unwritten languages are primitive.
Or the information:
A common misconception is that unwritten languages are primitive (Salzmann, Stanlaw & Adachi 2012, p. 4).
Note in the examples above that the word 'and' is used when the family names are part of the sentence, but an ampersand (&) is used when the names are in parentheses.
There are three ways to cite your sources.
1. Summary or general reference
A summary of a work or section of a work, or a general reference to someone's work or ideas, requires a citation. Include the author and the date.
According to Foster (2008), the work represents an emotional essence distilled from multiple fleeting insights.
2. Paraphrase
A paraphrase is the expression of the same idea in different words. When you paraphrase it is advisable to include the page number within the in-text citation.
The number of applications to nursing schools in England has increased by twenty-five per cent (Sprinks 2010, p. 11).
3. Quote
A direct quote is the exact reproduction of someone's words. Direct quotes always require a page number within the in-text citation.
UNESCO's communication model is reminiscent of the media paradigm in which 'each receiver becomes a potential transmitter' (Enzenburger 1970, p. 26).
A short quote is a sentence or part of a sentence (fewer than about 30 words) that is reproduced exactly from a source.
A block quote is a longer quote, more than about 30 words.
You will also gain a sense of the complexity of being an apprentice writer in an academic culture, or rather cultures, where expectations may vary from discipline to discipline, even subject to subject and where you can build a repertoire of critical thinking and writing skills that enable you to enter the academic debates, even to challenge. (Morley-Warner 2001, p. 6)
How do I format in-text citations?
Harvard in-text citations consist of the family name of the author and the year of publication. In addition, page numbers should be included when paraphrasing (rephrasing a short passage) or quoting directly from a source. A comma is placed between the year and the page number. An in-text citation can go at the beginning, the middle or the end of a sentence.
For citations you can emphasise the author:
Salzmann, Stanlaw and Adachi (2012, p. 4) further explore the established misconception that unwritten languages are primitive.
Or the information:
A common misconception is that unwritten languages are primitive (Salzmann, Stanlaw & Adachi 2012, p. 4).
Note in the examples above that the word 'and' is used when the family names are part of the sentence, but an ampersand (&) is used when the names are in parentheses.
There are three ways to cite your sources:
1. Summary or general reference
A summary of a work or section of a work, or a general reference to someone's work or ideas, requires a citation. Include the author and the date.
According to Foster (2008), the work represents an emotional essence distilled from multiple fleeting insights.
2. Paraphrase
A paraphrase is the expression of the same idea in different words. When you paraphrase it is advisable to include the page number within the in-text citation.
The number of applications to nursing schools in England has increased by twenty-five per cent (Sprinks 2010, p. 11).
3. Quote
A direct quote is the exact reproduction of someone's words. Direct quotes always require a page number within the in-text citation.
UNESCO's communication model is reminiscent of the media paradigm in which 'each receiver becomes a potential transmitter' (Enzenburger 1970, p. 26).
A short quote is a sentence or part of a sentence (fewer than about 30 words) that is reproduced exactly from a source.
A block quote is a longer quote, more than about 30 words.
You will also gain a sense of the complexity of being an apprentice writer in an academic culture, or rather cultures, where expectations may vary from discipline to discipline, even subject to subject and where you can build a repertoire of critical thinking and writing skills that enable you to enter the academic debates, even to challenge. (Morley-Warner 2001, p. 6)
Reading is central to study at university. It is through reading that ...
How do I compile a reference list?
An important purpose of the reference list is to enable readers to locate sources. Therefore details must be correct and complete. It is important that each in-text citation and the related reference list entry are identical in spelling and year.
The reference list should include:
Barikin, A 2012, Parallel presents: the art of Pierre Huyghe, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
The Cancer Council Australia 2007, National cancer prevention policy 2007–09, The Cancer Council Australia, retrieved 26 August 2010, <https://www.cancer.org.au/File/PolicyPublications/NCPP/NCPP_Full_document.pdf>.
Clarke, DB, Doel, MA, Merrin, W & Smith, RG (eds) 2009, Jean Baudrillard: fatal theories, Taylor & Francis, retrieved 23 September 2013, Ebook Library database.
Cotterall, S & Cohen, R 2003, 'Scaffolding for second language writers: producing an academic essay', ELT Journal, vol. 57, no. 2, pp. 158–66.
Hindsight 2006, radio program, ABC National Radio, Melbourne, 31 August.
HREOC – see Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission
Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission 1997, Bringing them home: report of the National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from their Families, HREOC, Sydney.
Priest, A 2007, 'Expression of the interesting', The Australian, 10 October, p. 34, retrieved 29 April 2008, Newsbank database.
Richardson, JS 2004, 'Content area literacy lessons go high tech', Reading Online, vol. 8, no. 1, retrieved 1 August 2004, <https://www.readingonline.org/>.
Roberts, GE 2004, 'Municipal government
Group Author
In-text citation
Sometimes the author is an organisation, government agency, association or corporate body. If the name of an organisation or agency is long and cited frequently, cite the full name and provide the abbreviation in brackets in the first instance. Use the abbreviation in subsequent references.
According to the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission [HREOC] (1997), children of Aboriginal parents ...
Reference list
Provide the entry under the full name of the organisation or agency. Add the abbreviation in the reference list and include a cross-reference to the full entry.
HREOC – see Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission
Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission 1997, Bringing them home: report of the National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from their Families, HREOC, Sydney.
The benefits, practices and personnel outcomes: results from a national survey', Public Personnel Management, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 1–22, retrieved 3 Oct 2013, Business Source Complete database.
Watts, M 2006, 'Team term papers and presentations', in WE Becker, M Watts & SR Becker (eds), Teaching economics: more alternatives to chalk and talk, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, UK, pp. 151–70.
Weaver, RK 2000, Ending welfare as we know it, Brookings Institution Press, retrieved 23 May 2008, <https://books.google.com/books>.
Žižek, S 2001a, Enjoy your symptom!: Jacques Lacan in Hollywood and out, Routledge, London.
——2001b, On belief, Routledge, London.
No Author Referencing
In-text citation
For works that do not indicate the name of an author, the title of the work should be used in place of the author in the citation.
Style manual for authors, editors and printers (2002) emphasises the importance of focusing on an audience's needs when producing a publication.
Note too that sources such as films, TV and radio programs are always cited by title.
Mr Abbott (Four corners 2010) said he found life as a seminarian difficult.
Reference list
Works are entered in the reference list alphabetically by title.
Four corners 2010, television program, ABC TV, Sydney, 15 March.
Style manual for authors, editors and printers 2002, 6th edn, rev. Snooks & Co., John Wiley & Sons, Milton, Qld.
Harvard Referencing: Guide
Harvard is a style of referencing, primarily used by university students, to cite information, please click on the link below .
sourceshttps://www.citethisforme.com/harvard-referencing
Harvard Referencing Guide General Principles
The following principles of the Harvard style of referencing apply to all sources, including print, electronic and multimedia sources.
Note that you may not always find an example of the specific source you want to reference. Sometimes you may have to combine elements from more than one section in this guide to determine the correct referencing format.
The Harvard style consists of two elements:
- in-text citations in the body of the paper that include the author, the date and often a page number
- a reference list at the end of the paper giving full bibliographic details of all in-text citations.
How do I format in-text citations?
Harvard in-text citations consist of the family name of the author and the year of publication. In addition, page numbers should be included when paraphrasing (rephrasing a short passage) or quoting directly from a source. A comma is placed between the year and the page number. An in-text citation can go at the beginning, the middle or the end of a sentence.
For citations you can emphasise the author:
Salzmann, Stanlaw and Adachi (2012, p. 4) further explore the established misconception that unwritten languages are primitive.
Or the information:
A common misconception is that unwritten languages are primitive (Salzmann, Stanlaw & Adachi 2012, p. 4).
Note in the examples above that the word 'and' is used when the family names are part of the sentence, but an ampersand (&) is used when the names are in parentheses.
There are three ways to cite your sources.
1. Summary or general reference
A summary of a work or section of a work, or a general reference to someone's work or ideas, requires a citation. Include the author and the date.
According to Foster (2008), the work represents an emotional essence distilled from multiple fleeting insights.
2. Paraphrase
A paraphrase is the expression of the same idea in different words. When you paraphrase it is advisable to include the page number within the in-text citation.
The number of applications to nursing schools in England has increased by twenty-five per cent (Sprinks 2010, p. 11).
3. Quote
A direct quote is the exact reproduction of someone's words. Direct quotes always require a page number within the in-text citation.
UNESCO's communication model is reminiscent of the media paradigm in which 'each receiver becomes a potential transmitter' (Enzenburger 1970, p. 26).
A short quote is a sentence or part of a sentence (fewer than about 30 words) that is reproduced exactly from a source.
- Single quotation marks are used at the start and end of the quote.
- The citation relates to the sentence in which it appears, so a full stop is placed after the citation.
A block quote is a longer quote, more than about 30 words.
- Block quotes are set off from the body of the paper by indenting.
- Quotation marks are not required for block quotes.
- The final full stop is placed before the in-text citation because the in-text citation relates to all the sentences in the block quote, not just to the last sentence.
- While the main text is often 1.5 or double-spaced, the indented block quote should be both single-spaced and a smaller font size.
You will also gain a sense of the complexity of being an apprentice writer in an academic culture, or rather cultures, where expectations may vary from discipline to discipline, even subject to subject and where you can build a repertoire of critical thinking and writing skills that enable you to enter the academic debates, even to challenge. (Morley-Warner 2001, p. 6)
How do I format in-text citations?
Harvard in-text citations consist of the family name of the author and the year of publication. In addition, page numbers should be included when paraphrasing (rephrasing a short passage) or quoting directly from a source. A comma is placed between the year and the page number. An in-text citation can go at the beginning, the middle or the end of a sentence.
For citations you can emphasise the author:
Salzmann, Stanlaw and Adachi (2012, p. 4) further explore the established misconception that unwritten languages are primitive.
Or the information:
A common misconception is that unwritten languages are primitive (Salzmann, Stanlaw & Adachi 2012, p. 4).
Note in the examples above that the word 'and' is used when the family names are part of the sentence, but an ampersand (&) is used when the names are in parentheses.
There are three ways to cite your sources:
1. Summary or general reference
A summary of a work or section of a work, or a general reference to someone's work or ideas, requires a citation. Include the author and the date.
According to Foster (2008), the work represents an emotional essence distilled from multiple fleeting insights.
2. Paraphrase
A paraphrase is the expression of the same idea in different words. When you paraphrase it is advisable to include the page number within the in-text citation.
The number of applications to nursing schools in England has increased by twenty-five per cent (Sprinks 2010, p. 11).
3. Quote
A direct quote is the exact reproduction of someone's words. Direct quotes always require a page number within the in-text citation.
UNESCO's communication model is reminiscent of the media paradigm in which 'each receiver becomes a potential transmitter' (Enzenburger 1970, p. 26).
A short quote is a sentence or part of a sentence (fewer than about 30 words) that is reproduced exactly from a source.
- Single quotation marks are used at the start and end of the quote.
- The citation relates to the sentence in which it appears, so a full stop is placed after the citation.
A block quote is a longer quote, more than about 30 words.
- Block quotes are set off from the body of the paper by indenting.
- Quotation marks are not required for block quotes.
- The final full stop is placed before the in-text citation because the in-text citation relates to all the sentences in the block quote, not just to the last sentence.
- While the main text is often 1.5 or double-spaced, the indented block quote should be both single-spaced and a smaller font size.
You will also gain a sense of the complexity of being an apprentice writer in an academic culture, or rather cultures, where expectations may vary from discipline to discipline, even subject to subject and where you can build a repertoire of critical thinking and writing skills that enable you to enter the academic debates, even to challenge. (Morley-Warner 2001, p. 6)
Reading is central to study at university. It is through reading that ...
How do I compile a reference list?
An important purpose of the reference list is to enable readers to locate sources. Therefore details must be correct and complete. It is important that each in-text citation and the related reference list entry are identical in spelling and year.
The reference list should include:
- full bibliographic details according to the source type
- all the works cited in the paper and no works that are not cited
- works listed in alphabetical order by family name of author or by name of authoring organisation
- works listed alphabetically by title where there is no author (disregarding 'A', 'An' or 'The' at the beginning of the title)
- one listing per work, regardless of how many times it is cited in text
- commas separating elements of the citation rather than full stops and no full stops after initials
- the state or country for a relatively unknown place of publication, or where city names can be confused, e.g. Cambridge MA or Cambridge UK
- an author's name only in the first instance where the author has multiple entries and a long dash in place of the author's name for subsequent entries
- lower case letters following the year where an author has multiple entries in the same year, e.g. 2001a, 2001b, 2001c.
Barikin, A 2012, Parallel presents: the art of Pierre Huyghe, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
The Cancer Council Australia 2007, National cancer prevention policy 2007–09, The Cancer Council Australia, retrieved 26 August 2010, <https://www.cancer.org.au/File/PolicyPublications/NCPP/NCPP_Full_document.pdf>.
Clarke, DB, Doel, MA, Merrin, W & Smith, RG (eds) 2009, Jean Baudrillard: fatal theories, Taylor & Francis, retrieved 23 September 2013, Ebook Library database.
Cotterall, S & Cohen, R 2003, 'Scaffolding for second language writers: producing an academic essay', ELT Journal, vol. 57, no. 2, pp. 158–66.
Hindsight 2006, radio program, ABC National Radio, Melbourne, 31 August.
HREOC – see Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission
Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission 1997, Bringing them home: report of the National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from their Families, HREOC, Sydney.
Priest, A 2007, 'Expression of the interesting', The Australian, 10 October, p. 34, retrieved 29 April 2008, Newsbank database.
Richardson, JS 2004, 'Content area literacy lessons go high tech', Reading Online, vol. 8, no. 1, retrieved 1 August 2004, <https://www.readingonline.org/>.
Roberts, GE 2004, 'Municipal government
Group Author
In-text citation
Sometimes the author is an organisation, government agency, association or corporate body. If the name of an organisation or agency is long and cited frequently, cite the full name and provide the abbreviation in brackets in the first instance. Use the abbreviation in subsequent references.
According to the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission [HREOC] (1997), children of Aboriginal parents ...
Reference list
Provide the entry under the full name of the organisation or agency. Add the abbreviation in the reference list and include a cross-reference to the full entry.
HREOC – see Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission
Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission 1997, Bringing them home: report of the National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from their Families, HREOC, Sydney.
The benefits, practices and personnel outcomes: results from a national survey', Public Personnel Management, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 1–22, retrieved 3 Oct 2013, Business Source Complete database.
Watts, M 2006, 'Team term papers and presentations', in WE Becker, M Watts & SR Becker (eds), Teaching economics: more alternatives to chalk and talk, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, UK, pp. 151–70.
Weaver, RK 2000, Ending welfare as we know it, Brookings Institution Press, retrieved 23 May 2008, <https://books.google.com/books>.
Žižek, S 2001a, Enjoy your symptom!: Jacques Lacan in Hollywood and out, Routledge, London.
——2001b, On belief, Routledge, London.
No Author Referencing
In-text citation
For works that do not indicate the name of an author, the title of the work should be used in place of the author in the citation.
Style manual for authors, editors and printers (2002) emphasises the importance of focusing on an audience's needs when producing a publication.
Note too that sources such as films, TV and radio programs are always cited by title.
Mr Abbott (Four corners 2010) said he found life as a seminarian difficult.
Reference list
Works are entered in the reference list alphabetically by title.
Four corners 2010, television program, ABC TV, Sydney, 15 March.
Style manual for authors, editors and printers 2002, 6th edn, rev. Snooks & Co., John Wiley & Sons, Milton, Qld.
how_to_search_like_a_master.pdf |
using_oliver.pdf |
Join a local library
Join the council library near to where you live. They are free to join. They have databases and will also give you access to the State Library. Check out their 'eresources' page under FIND for more information.
Join the council library near to where you live. They are free to join. They have databases and will also give you access to the State Library. Check out their 'eresources' page under FIND for more information.